Detection of survivin in the biological fluids of cancer patients

ABSTRACT

The present invention includes a method for diagnosing cancer and predicting recurrent cancer comprising detecting the presence of survivin in the biological fluid of a patient. The present invention also provides kits comprising one or more agents that detect survivin polypeptide or survivin nucleic acid and a container for collecting biological fluid for testing.

RELATED APPLICATION

[0001] This application is a Continuation-in-Part of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/042,302 which claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Application 60/260,898, filed Jan. 12, 2001, both of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.

[0002] This application is also related to U.S. application Ser. No. 08/975,080, filed Nov. 20, 1997, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,245,523, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0003] The present invention relates to a method of diagnosing and monitoring cancer and predicting the recurrence of cancer comprising detecting the presence of survivin in the biological fluids of a patient. Specifically, the method relates to the diagnosis of bladder cancer, comprising detecting the presence of survivin in urine samples of a patient. Additionally, the present invention relates to kits for diagnosing cancer comprising an agent that detects survivin in the biological fluids of a patient and a container for collecting the biological fluids.

BACKGROUND

[0004] Cancer refers to malignant neoplasms that tend to invade surrounding tissues and that metastasize to new body sites. They are likely to recur after attempted removal and to cause death of the patient unless adequately treated. The exact cause of cancer is not known, but links between certain activities such as smoking or exposure to carcinogens and the incidence of certain types of cancers and tumors have been shown by a number of researchers.

[0005] The spread of cancer from a primary site to distant organs, i.e., metastasis, still remains the main cause of death for most cancer patients. Despite years of research, the genetic mechanisms involved in the process remain largely uncharacterized. Such information is of special importance in cancer prognosis given the uncertain course of the disease. Since cancer prognosis cannot always be accurately assessed using current tumor grading techniques, one of the greatest obstacles to the successful treatment of the cancer patient continues to be the lack of sound prognostic markers.

[0006] Bladder Cancer

[0007] Bladder cancer is a malignant tumor growth which usually arises from the urothelial cells, (transitional cells) that line the bladder. Urothelial carcinoma of the bladder, i.e. bladder cancer, is the fourth most common cancer in men and the eighth most common cancer in women in the United States, accounting for more than 54,000 new cases and 11,200 deaths every year. Recurrences of bladder cancer occur in up to 80% of patients and constitute a formidable obstacle to long-lasting remissions, with such recurrences frequently involving muscle invasion and disseminated disease (Dawson et al., ABC of Urology: Urological Malignancies-II: Urothelial Tumors. BMJ, 1996, 312: 1090-94).

[0008] Numerous factors may contribute to the development of bladder cancer. Cigarette smoking and occupational exposure to a certain class of organic chemicals called aromatic amines (beta-naphthylamines, xenylamine, 4-nitrobiphenyl, benzidine) are well-established risk factors. Some studies indicate that there may be a link between high doses of the artificial sweetener saccharin and transitional cell bladder cancer. Other studies have shown that women who received radiation therapy for the treatment of cervical cancer have an increased risk of developing transitional cell bladder cancer. Additionally, people who received the chemotherapy drug, cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan), have demonstrated a greater risk of developing bladder cancer.

[0009] The most common clinical presentation of bladder cancer is hematuria. Frequently, however, the diagnosis of bladder cancer is delayed because the hematuria is either intermittent or attributed to other causes, such as a urinary tract infection or the use of anti-coagulants. Voided urine cytology of transitional cells is conventionally used to diagnose bladder cancer. If the urinary cytology is positive, then transitional cell cancer of the urothelium is almost certainly present. However, cytological examination of transitional cells may be negative in up to half of the patients with bladder cancer. Thus, negative cytological results do not rule out the presence of bladder cancer (Badalament et al., Cancer, 1987, 59(12): 2078; Cohen et al., Urologic Clinics of North America, 1992, 19(3): 421).

[0010] As an added diagnostic complication, the entire urinary tract must be evaluated for transitional cell cancer once an initial diagnosis of bladder cancer is made because transitional cells line the urinary tract starting at the level of the kidneys, including the renal pelvis, the ureters, the bladder, and most of the urethra. The renal pelvis of the kidneys and ureters is best evaluated by intravenous pyelogram (IVP) or retrograde pyelogram. An IVP involves an intravenous injection of contrast material which is then filtered out of the blood into the urine by the kidney. Plain x-rays taken during this process show the urinary tract. Typically a retrograde pyelogram is reserved for patients with an intravenous contrast allergy or poor visualization on IVP. A retrograde pyelogram is performed at the time of cystoscopy.

[0011] Cystoscopy, which involves the use of a lighted instrument to view inside the bladder, is an uncomfortable procedure utilized for the unambiguous diagnosis of bladder cancer. In performing a retrograde pyelogram through the cystoscope a small plastic tube is inserted into the ureter, and contrast material is injected into the ureter and kidney. Cystoscopy enables the identification of small subtle abnormalities that may be missed by other diagnostic modalities such as ultrasound, computed tomography, or magnetic resonance imaging. Thus, office cystoscopy is an essential part of the initial evaluation and at this time cannot be substituted by other tests. Today, most office cystoscopic examinations are performed with a flexible scope. Compared to rigid cystoscopy, flexible endoscopy is more comfortable and allows the physician to see around the curves of an enlarged prostate.

[0012] A biopsy may also be performed to diagnose bladder cancer. A biopsy is the removal of a small sample of living tissue from an organ, such as the bladder, for microscopic examination to confirm or establish a diagnosis, estimate prognosis, or follow the course of a disease. However, biopsies are invasive procedures, and are therefore not desirable and it frequently is necessary for a person to undergo anesthesia. In addition, as with any invasive procedure, an individual undergoing biopsy runs the risk of infection. Further, the entire bladder cannot be biopsied to determine whether bladder cancer is present.

[0013] Staging Bladder Cancer

[0014] Bladder cancers are classified based on their aggressiveness and how different they are from the surrounding bladder tissue (differentiation). They are staged and graded by physicians while diagnosing bladder cancer.

[0015] There are several different ways to stage tumors. The two most commonly used staging systems for bladder cancer are the ABCD system (the Jewett-Strong-Marshall system) and the TNM system. The ABCD system is older and uses A-B-C-D staging to classify the distinct phases or periods of bladder cancer. The system basically uses the following scale: 0, carcinoma in situ (tumor limited to the bladder mucosa (lining)); A, tumor extends through the mucosa but does not extend beyond the submucosa; B, tumor invades the muscle; C, tumor invades into the fat; and D, cancer has spread to regional lymph nodes or to distant sites. Each letter is followed by a number, for example A1, B2, etc. With the TNM system, the bladder is described by the T, the lymph nodes by the N, and distant spread by the M. Each letter is followed by a describing number, T2aN0M0. For example, Ta denotes a non-invasive papillary carcinoma; Tis denotes a carcinoma in situ; and T1 denotes a tumor invading subepithelial connective tissue.

[0016] Bladder cancers spread to the rest of the body by extending into the nearby organs, including the prostate, uterus, vagina, ureters, and rectum. Metastasis occurs through the pelvic lymph nodes, where the tumor next spreads to the liver, lungs and bones.

[0017] Grading Bladder Cancer

[0018] Bladder cancers are graded by a pathologist from the biopsy. The grade of a cancer provides information regarding how fast the cancer might be growing or how aggressive it might be. High grade cancers grow faster and spread earlier than low grade cancers. The current system of grading uses only three different grades: well-differentiated, moderately differentiated, and poorly differentiated (or Grade I, II or III). Some pathologists will use a 4-level grading system, I, II, III and IV. Either system is acceptable, and the pathologist will always note how many levels they use by declaring the cancer as a II/III or II/IV. The denominator or second number states what system they use. A well-differentiated tumor means that the cancer has more resemblance to normal bladder tissue and therefore usually does not grow or spread quickly. A poorly differentiated tumor means that the cancer does not resemble normal bladder and usually grows quickly and spreads to other tissues earlier. Moderately differentiated tumors are in the middle.

[0019] Grade, while important, has less bearing on the treatment decisions than does the stage. After the grade and stage are known, other factors also come into play before making any decision about future treatment.

[0020] Prostate Cancer

[0021] Prostate cancer is a malignant tumor growth within the prostate gland. It is the third most common cause of death from cancer among men of all ages and is the most common cause of death from cancer in men over 75 years old. Prostate cancer is rarely found in men younger than 40 years of age.

[0022] Although the cause is unknown, some studies have shown a relationship between prostate cancer and high dietary fat intake and increased testosterone levels. There is no known association with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).

[0023] Like bladder cancer, prostate cancers are classified or staged based on their aggressiveness and the degree that they are different from the surrounding prostate tissue. Most prostate cancers are staged using the A-B-C-D staging system or the TNM system. For prostate cancer, the A-B-C-D system basically categorizes tumors using the following scale: A tumor not palpable (able to be felt) but detectable in microscopic biopsy; B palpable tumor confined to prostate; C extension of tumor beyond prostate with no distant metastasis; and D cancer has spread to regional lymph nodes. The TNM system, on the other hand, describes the prostate (T), the lymph nodes (N), and evidence of metastatic disease (distant spread) (M) separately. Prostate cancers spread by extending into the seminal vesicles, bladder, and peritoneal cavity. Prostate cancers typically metastasize to the lymph nodes, bones, lungs, liver, and kidneys.

[0024] Today, prostate cancer is usually graded using the Gleason grading system, named after a pathologist from the University of Minnesota. The system involves looking for different patterns of aggressiveness within the prostate and then giving two scores of 1-5. These two scores are added up to give the total Gleason score which will range from 2-10. The higher the score, the more aggressive the tumor will be. For example, a typical Gleason graded cancer might be written as Gleason 4+3=7, or Gleason 2+2=4.

[0025] Survivin

[0026] Deregulated expression of inhibitors of apoptosis (programmed cell death) is thought to contribute to cancer by abnormally extending cell viability, favoring the accumulation of mutations, and promoting resistance to therapy (Reed, J. Clin. Oncol., 1999, 17: 2941-53). A novel modulator of the cell death/viability balance in cancer was recently identified as survivin (Ambrosini et al., Nat. Med., 1997, 3: 917-21), a member of the Inhibitor of Apoptosis (IAP) gene family (Deveraux et al. Genes Dev., 1999, 13: 239-52).

[0027] Survivin is a 16.5 kDa cytoplasmic protein containing a single partially conserved BIR (baculovirus IAP repeats) domain, and a highly charged carboxyl-terminal coiled-coil region instead of a RING finger, which inhibits apoptosis induced by growth factor (IL-3) withdrawal when transferred in B cell precursors (Ambrosini et al., Nat Med 1997, 3:917-921). Based on overall sequence conservation, the absence of a carboxyl-terminal RING finger and the presence of a single, partially conserved BIR domain, survivin is the most distantly related member of the IAP family, sharing the highest degree of similarity with NAIP (neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein; Roy et al., Cell, 1995, 80:167-178). Additionally, unlike other IAP proteins, survivin is undetectable in normal adult tissues, but becomes the top fourth transcript expressed in common human cancers (Ambrosini et al., Nat. Med., 1997, 3: 917-21; Velculescu et al., Nat. Genet., 1999, 23:387-88), such as lung, colon, breast, pancreas, and prostate, and in 50% of high-grade non-Hodgkin's lymphomas, in vivo. Consistent with a proposed role of deregulated apoptosis in urothelial cancer (Gazzaniga et al., Int. J. Cancer, 1996, 69:100-04; Lara et al., Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys., 1999, 43:1015-19), survivin was found in 78% of bladder cancers, but not in normal urothelium, and its expression correlated with accelerated recurrences (Swana et al., N. Engi. J. Med., 1999, 341:452-53). Because of its over-expression in cancer but not in normal tissues (Ambrosini et al., Nat. Med., 1997, 3:917-21; Velculescu et al., Nat. Genet., 1999, 23: 387-88), and its unfavorable predictive/prognostic significance in various malignancies (Adida et al., Lancet, 1998, 351: 882-83; Islam et al., Oncogene, 2000, 19: 617-23; Tanaka et al., Clin. Cancer Res., 2000, 6: 127-34; Monzo et al., J. Clin. Oncol., 1999, 17: 2100-04; Kawasaki et al., Cancer Res., 1998, 58: 5071-74), survivin may constitute a useful molecular marker in cancer. This is particularly relevant in bladder cancer (Stein et al., J. Urol., 1998, 160: 645-59; Ozen, Curr. Opin. Oncol., 1998, 10: 273-78) where simple and non-invasive diagnostic means to monitor response to therapy and simplify follow up protocols are urgently needed. Although regarded as “gold standard” (Brown FM, Urol. Clin. North Am., 2000, 27: 25-37), urine cytology has a low sensitivity (30-40%) in bladder cancer, and fails to detect superficial, low-grade lesions. Accordingly, the inventors of the instant application investigated the potential suitability of bodily fluid survivin as a new molecular marker for detection of cancer, specifically detection of urine survivin for the diagnosis of bladder cancer and predicting the recurrence of bladder cancer.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0028] The present invention provides a method of diagnosing cancer and predicting the recurrence of cancer in a patient comprising assaying a sample of biological fluid from a patient for the presence or absence of survivin, wherein the presence of survivin in the sample indicates that the patient has cancer. In a preferred embodiment, the biological fluid is selected from the group consisting of prostatic fluid, seminal fluid, whole blood, serum, urine, breast biopsy fluid, gastrointestinal fluid, and vaginal fluid, and the cancer is new onset or recurrent cancer selected from the group consisting of lung cancer, colon cancer, breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, bladder cancer, renal cancer, genitourinary tract cancer, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, and neuroblastoma. More preferably, the biological fluid is urine or blood serum, and the cancer is bladder or prostate cancer. Most preferably, the biological fluid is urine, and the cancer is bladder cancer.

[0029] In one embodiment of the invention, the present invention provides a method of predicting the recurrence of cancer in a patient that is in remission from cancer treatment. The cancer treatment includes but is not limited to chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, immunotoxin therapy, and surgery. Preferably, the treatment is immunotherapy comprising administering BCG or chemotherapy comprising administering mitomycin C. More preferably, the cancer is bladder cancer.

[0030] In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of predicting recurrence of cancer in a patient who has completed cancer treatment less than a month ago. Additionally, the cancer will recur in the patient within one year.

[0031] In one aspect, the present invention includes a method to determine the grade of the cancer by quantitating the amount of survivin in the biological fluid of a patient, wherein a high level of survivin indicates that the cancer is of a high grade. Additionally, the present invention includes the use of the method to determine the stage of the cancer, wherein a cancer of the CIS stage has a higher level of survivin than the cancer of the non-invasive papillary carcinoma stage.

[0032] In another aspect, the present invention includes a method of monitoring cancer, preferably monitoring the recurrence of cancer in a patient comprising quantitating the amount of survivin in the biological fluid of a patient. Additionally, the present invention contemplates determining the prognosis of a patient by detecting or quantitating the amount of survivin in the biological fluid of the patient. In some instances, the presence of survivin indicates a poor prognosis. Quantitation of survivin includes measuring relative levels of survivin in a sample. It may also include detection of the presence or absence of survivin.

[0033] Preferably, the survivin is detected using an agent that binds to survivin or hybridizes to the nucleic acid encoding survivin. Most preferably, the agent is selected from the group consisting of antibodies that bind survivin, survivin binding fragments, and nucleic acids that hybridize to a nucleic acid encoding survivin, and the agent is tagged with a label. The label may be a radioactive label, a fluorescent label, an enzyme, a chemiluminescent tag, or a colorimetric tag.

[0034] In one aspect of the invention, survivin is detected by an immunoassay. Preferably, the immunoassay is an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay or radioimmunoassay, and the immunoassay comprises immunoblotting, immunodiffusion, immunoelectrophoresis, or immunoprecipitation. More preferably, survivin is detected by dot blotting, most preferably, by using the Bio-Dot method and the Bio-Dot SF module.

[0035] In another aspect of the invention, survivin is detected by nucleic acid hybridization.

[0036] In a preferred embodiment, the nucleic acid hybridization is RT-PCR or Northern blot analysis. The agent used in nucleic acid hybridization is labeled with a radioactive label, a fluorescent label, an enzyme, a chemiluminescent tag, or a calorimetric tag.

[0037] The present invention also provides kits for diagnosis, prognosis, or monitoring cancer or recurrent cancer in a patient, comprising a container for collecting biological fluid from a patient and one or more agents that detect the presence of survivin in the biological fluid. The agents in the kit can be tagged with a label. Alternatively, other components can be included in the kit for tagging the agents. The present invention also contemplates kits comprising other components for diagnosing and monitoring cancer in a patient, and determining the prognosis of the cancer. In one embodiment, the components of the kit are packaged either in aqueous medium or in a lyophilized form.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0038]FIG. 1 shows urine detection of survivin using the Bio-Dot SF module. Increasing concentrations of recombinant survivin in μg/ml (left column), or urine specimens from the indicated patient groups were applied to a slot-blot apparatus. The membrane was incubated with an antibody to survivin followed by HRP-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG. Bands were visualized by chemiluminescence and quantitated by densitometry. TCC, bladder cancer (Group 4); TCC/R, remission (Group 5); TCC/T, under treatment (Group 5); RCC, renal cell carcinoma, PC, prostate cancer (Group 3); PSA, patient with rising PSA without diagnosis of prostate cancer (Group 2); BPH, benign prostate hyperplasia (Group 2); Ctrl, healthy volunteers (Group 1).

[0039]FIG. 2 shows Western blotting of urine survivin. Urine cell pellets from a normal healthy volunteer (Normal) and a Group 4 patient with bladder cancer (TCC) were electrophoresed, transferred to nylon membranes and immunoblotted with an antibody to survivin followed by chemiluminescence. Relative molecular weight markers are indicated on the left.

[0040]FIG. 3 shows RT-PCR amplification of survivin mRNA in urine. Total RNA was extracted from urine cell pellets and reverse-transcribed by random priming. Amplification reactions were carried out with survivin-specific nested primers (279 bp) or P-actin-specific primers (309 bp). Molecular weight markers in bp are indicated (M). TCC, analysis of 5 representative patients with new or recurrent bladder cancer (Group 4).

[0041]FIG. 4 shows serum detection of survivin using the Bio-Dot SF module. Increasing concentrations of recombinant survivin in μg/ml (left and right column), urine or serum samples were applied to a slot-blot apparatus. The membrane was incubated with an antibody to survivin followed by HRP-conjugated goat anti rabbit IgG. Bands were visualized by chemiluminescence. A number followed by “serum BI CA” indicates serum from patients with TCC. Most of these samples were applied to the blot in duplicate. 7/8 serum samples from patients with bladder cancer were positive. One sample (8-serum BI CA) was negative for one of the two samples tested. Urine and serum from patient 2 B1 CA were positive. “Urine Hx TCC” indicates urine from a single patient previously diagnosed with TCC. This patient was resected and is undergoing BCG treatment. “3-serum P CA” indicates survivin positive serum from a patient with prostate cancer. “6-serum BPH” is serum from a patient with benign prostate hypertrophy. This sample was survivin positive 1/2 times that it was tested. No addition information is available for this patient. “Urine TCC” is urine from a patient with bladder cancer. “Neg con” is a protein control. “Blank” is TBS buffer only.

[0042]FIG. 5 shows representative blots of urinary survivin levels in the urine of TCC subjects. Relative intensities of survivin in urine samples are shown for a subject whose treatment results in remission and a subject whose TCC recurs after treatment. Survivin levels are shown prior to, during and after treatment. Intensities are relative to the exposure time of the blot.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0043] I. General Description

[0044] The present invention is based on the need to develop safe, reliable, non-invasive screening strategies for detecting cancer or predicting recurrent cancer, specifically bladder cancer. The identification of a single predictive/prognostic marker of the disease has remained elusive (Stein et al., J. Urol. 1998, 160: 645-59). The identification of a marker and the development of a method to diagnose and screen for cancer, especially transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder, as well as for monitoring cancer activity and determining the prognosis of an individual having bladder cancer would be useful to the treatment of cancer.

[0045] The present invention provides a simple, antibody or other probe based test to identify the apoptosis inhibitor, survivin, in the urine or other bodily fluid of patients with cancer.

[0046] The present invention is based, in part, on the discovery that urine survivin is found in the urine of all patients with newly diagnosed or recurrent bladder cancer, but not in normal volunteers, or in patients with other urologic cancers, and only rarely in patients with non-neoplastic genito-urinary disorders. The present invention is also based, in part, on the finding that of the three patients with hematuria who tested positive for urine survivin, one had a positive cytology for bladder cancer and another one was diagnosed with bladder cancer within six months of survivin detection. Moreover, the present invention is based on the finding that patients treated for bladder cancer and achieving cystoscopic remission are negative for urine survivin.

[0047] The present invention is also based, in part, on the finding that survivin is detected in the blood serum of patients with bladder and prostate cancer.

[0048] Moreover, the present invention is based, in part, on the finding that using a dot blot procedure that utilizes a polyclonal antibody to survivin, survivin protein was detected in the urine from subjects with new onset or recurrent transitional cell carcinoma (TCC), regardless of tumor stage or grade. Survivin detection had a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 95% for subjects with a diagnosis of new onset or recurrent TCC, compared to controls. Urine cells from subjects with TCC displayed survivin mRNA and survivin protein. The presence of urine survivin in TCC subjects who receive intravesical instillation of bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) or mitomycin C is associated with recurrence. Accordingly, the presence of survivin in bodily fluid is useful for predicting recurrence of cancer. Urinary survivin detection provides a rapid, non-invasive test to assess TCC treatment outcomes.

[0049] II. Specific Embodiments

[0050] 1. Transitional Cell Carcinomas (TCC) and Treatments

[0051] TCC of the renal pelvis and ureter is a disease in which malignant cells are found in the tissues in the kidneys that collect urine (the renal pelvis) and/or in the tube that connects the kidney to the bladder (ureter). The cells that line the renal pelvis and ureters are called transitional cells. It is these cells that are affected in TCC.

[0052] Superficial bladder cancer is restricted to the bladder lining or mucosa. Invasive cancer is defined as extending through the mucosa into the muscle. Superficial tumors are present in the majority of cases of TCC at initial presentation.

[0053] TCCs are the most prevalent bladder cancer, representing 95% of the bladder cancers diagnosed in the Western hemisphere. While 70-80% of bladder cancers are low grade, non-aggressive tumors confined to the urothelium, recurrences occur in up to 70% of subjects. This high rate of recurrence poses challenges for appropriate follow-up diagnosis and treatment. The prognosis for any patient with metastatic or recurrent transitional cell cancer is poor. The proper management for recurrence depends on the sites of recurrence, extent of prior therapy, and individual patient considerations.

[0054] Surgery is the most common treatment of TCC of the renal pelvis and ureter. The kidney, ureter, and top part of the bladder may be removed in an operation called a nephroureterectomy. Part of the ureter and kidney may be removed by resection. Before intravesical therapy was available, radical cystectomy (removal of the entire bladder) was the most common treatment for recurrent superficial bladder cancer, especially for Carcinoma in Situ (CIS).

[0055] If the tumor is on the surface of the renal pelvis or ureter, it may be burned away via electrosurgery using an electric current, or it may be removed using laser therapy using a narrow beam of intense light.

[0056] TCC may also be treated using chemotherapy. “Chemotherapy” refers to treatment of disease with chemical substances. As used herein, chemotherapy refers to application of anti-neoplastic chemicals to an individual with cancer. Chemotherapy is a systematic treatment because the drug enters the bloodstream, travels through the body, and kill cancer cells throughout the body. Chemotherapy may also be put directly into the ureter or pelvis (intraureteral or intrapelvic chemotherapy).

[0057] In patients with metastatic or recurrent transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder, combination chemotherapy has produced high response rates and occasional complete responses (Sternberg et al., 1989, Cancer 64: 2448-2458; Harker et al., 1985, Journal of Clinical Oncology 3:1463-1470). In a randomized trial, results comparing the combination of methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin, and cisplatin (MVAC) with the single agent cisplatin in the treatment of advanced bladder cancer showed a significant advantage with MVAC in both response rate and median survival. The overall response rate with MVAC in this cooperative group trial was 39% (Loehrer et al., 1992, Journal of Clinical Oncology, 10:1066-1073).

[0058] Other chemotherapy agents that have shown activity in metastatic transitional cell cancer include paclitaxel, ifosfamide, gallium nitrate, and gemcitabine (Roth et al., 1995, Seminars in Oncology 22(3) Suppl. 6: 1-5; Witte et al., 1997, Journal of Clinical Oncology 15:589-593; Einhorn et al. 1994, Journal of Clinical Oncology 12(11):2271-2276; Pollera et al., 1994, Annals of Oncology 5(2): 182-184, 1994). Mitomycin C (Mutamycin®) has also been used to treat bladder cancer. Other combinations of agents include paclitaxel and cisplatin; gemcitabine and cisplatin; gemcitabine and paclitaxel with or without cisplatin (H. Von der Masse, 2002, Seminars in Oncology, 29(1, Suppl.3): 3-14).

[0059] Radiation therapy is also used to treat patients with TCC. Radiation therapy involves the use of high-energy x-rays to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external beam radiation therapy) or from putting materials that produce radiation (radioisotopes) through thin plastic tubes (internal radiation therapy) in the area where the cancer cells are found. External beam radiation therapy is used to aim highly focused beams of radiation at the edges of the site where cancer is found in order to destroy any abnormal cells and prevent the growth or regrowth of the tumor. Brachytherapy is a type of radiation therapy that involves the placement of radioactive sources either in tumors or near tumors. In brachytherapy, radiation from the radioactive sources is emitted outward and is limited to short distances. Thus, unlike external beam radiation therapy which requires radiation to traverse normal tissue in order to reach the tumor, brachytherapy is much more localized and therefore reduces radiation exposure to normal tissue while allowing higher radiation dose as compared to external beam radiotherapy.

[0060] Generally, a cancer patient may be treated with radiation alone. For example, prostate cancer is often treated in this manner. However, in patients with upper-tract TCC, radiation therapy is usually only a part of a patient's treatment. A TCC patient may be treated with radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy, and surgery. In fact, treating a patient with radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy prior to surgery may allow the patient to have a less radical surgery than would otherwise be required. For example, some bladder cancer patients can keep their bladder if they are treated with radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and surgery rather than only one treatment.

[0061] Other methods of treating TCC include immunotherapy (biological therapy) and immunotoxin therapy. Immunotherapy employs the immune system of the patient to fight cancer. It uses the materials made by the patient's own body or made in a laboratory to boost, direct, or restore the patient's natural defenses against disease. The drugs used in immunotherapy are sometimes referred to as “Biological Response Modifiers” (BRM) because they stimulate the body to respond biologically or naturally to cancer. Immunotherapy can be local or systemic and targeted or non-specific.

[0062] Local immunotherapy involves treating only one part of the body. An example of local immunotherapy for the treatment of TCC is intravesical instillation of Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG).

[0063] Systemic immunotherapy refers to treatment of the whole body. It is more common than local immunotherapy and can be used to treat a cancer that may have spread. Non-specific immunotherapy means refers to treatment given to boost the immune system generally so that it may become more effective in fighting cancer cells. Targeted immunotherapy refers to immunotherapy aimed at cancer cells, and if possible leave normal cells untouched. Examples of targeted immunotherapy include but are not limited to cancer vaccines and monoclonal antibodies.

[0064] Cancer vaccines involve stimulating the patient's body to make its own immune response, rather than make the antibodies in the laboratory and give them to the patient. T cells in the body have been found to react with and kill cancer cells. T cell vaccination may be useful for treating advanced cancer.

[0065] The monoclonal antibodies are either used to mark the cancer cells, so that they are killed by the body's immune defense or are used to attach an anti-cancer drug or radioactive substance to kill the cancer cells. For example, immunotoxin is a hybrid molecule comprising a protein toxin attached to a monoclonal antibody. This could be done using chemical coupling agents or by recombinant means. The immunotoxin could be produced by replacing the binding domain of a toxin with the Fc portion of a monoclonal antibody using the techniques of recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant immunotoxins are more homogeneous than immunotoxins made by chemical coupling.

[0066] As discussed above, the recurrence rate of TCC and bladder cancer is high. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor the patient on a regular basis. The current monitoring is done by cystoscopy, an invasive procedure, and urine cytology. Thus, there is an interest to develop a non-invasive, sensitive procedure for detecting recurrence of bladder cancer.

[0067] The present invention provides an easy, non-invasive, and sensitive method of predicting, detecting, and monitoring tumor recurrence in patients who are in remission or who have completed treatment. Preferably, the present invention is used to predict, detect, and/or monitor the recurrence of bladder cancer or prostate cancer. More preferably, the present invention is used to detect the recurrence of TCC.

[0068] 2. Intravesical Treatment with BCG and Mitomycin

[0069] BCG is an attenuated strain of Mycobacterium bovis that has been used as a vaccine against tuberculosis. It was first used to treat bladder cancer in 1976. BCG is a potent stimulator of host defense mechanisms and can induce tumour regression in immunocompetent hosts. Repeated instillation of BCG produces a nonspecific immune reaction within the bladder which allows the cells of the lining to be shed, especially those rapidly dividing cancer cells. BCG is usually given after superficial bladder tumors have been removed during an operation. BCG is administered intravesically via a catheter tube that is placed into the bladder and is administered repeatedly over a period of time. BCG has emerged as an effective intravesical treatment for superficial bladder cancer and carcinoma in situ (CIS) (Alexandroff et al., Lancet, 1999, 353:1689). The effects of BCG in bladder cancer are local only, and there is no protection against the development of tumors in areas where there is no BCG contact.

[0070] Mitomycin C is an antitumor antibiotic isolated from Streptomyces caespitosus. Clinical trials with Mitomycin C begin in the U.S. in the late 1960's. In vivo, mitomycin C is activated to a bifunctional and trifunctional alkylating agent which binds to DNA. Its binding to DNA leads to cross-linking and inhibition of DNA synthesis and function. When administered intravesically in the treatment of bladder cancer, mitomycin C is equivalent to BCG in the treatment of bladder cancer, particularly with respect to survival rate.

[0071] In the present study, pretreatment survivin levels are higher in subjects whose TCC recurs following treatment, compared to those who achieve remission. Survivin levels increase several fold during treatment with the highest survivin levels measured in subjects who recur. Median post treatment values of survivin are zero in subjects who achieve remission, and about 1.0 ng survivin/ml urine in subjects whose TCC recurs.

[0072] The presence of urinary survivin one month after completion of treatment predicts TCC recurrence with about 100% sensitivity and about 78% specificity. Specificity to predict TCC recurrence increases to about 92% after one year. No TCC recurred for about 1 year in 12/14 subjects whose post treatment survivin levels were ≦0.1 ng survivin/ml urine. Three of four subjects who were survivin positive but in remission one month after completion of treatment had recurrent TCC within one year. Subjects who have urinary survivin after completion of intravesical instillation have a high likelihood of TCC recurrence.

[0073] 3. Biological Fluids

[0074] As used herein, the term “biological fluids of patients” refers to fluids from living organisms. The term encompasses “bodily fluids” which are found in the body of living organisms.

[0075] The present invention includes the use of agents in the screening of biological fluids for the presence of survivin. In vitro serological evaluation of biological fluids withdrawn from patients thereby permits non-invasive diagnosis of cancers. For example, human bodily fluids such as prostatic fluid, seminal fluid, whole blood, serum, urine, breast biopsy fluid, gastrointestinal fluid, and vaginal fluid can be taken from a patient and assayed for the presence of survivin using an agent that can detect survivin by radioimmunoassays or enzyme-linked immunoassays, competitive binding enzyme-linked immunoassays, dot blot, Western blot, Northern blot, PCR, or other assays known in the art.

[0076] In one embodiment, blood serum from patients is collected to detect the presence of survivin for diagnosis of bladder or prostate cancer.

[0077] In another embodiment, urine samples from patients are collected to detect the presence of survivin for diagnosis of bladder cancer. Urine samples to be tested may be collected well in advance of testing and frozen prior to treatment. If the urine sample is to be frozen prior to analysis, it is preferred that the sample be collected and placed on ice. Preferably within a time period of about 2 hours, the iced sample is centrifuged to pellet cellular debris, then filtered, and the filtrate then promptly frozen at −20° C., more preferably at −80° C. Just prior to analysis, frozen samples should be rapidly thawed in a 37° C. water bath. Fresh urine samples may also be used immediately after collection, optimal centrifugation, and filtration. More preferably, whole urine is kept on ice until it is frozen at −80° C. After thawing at 4° C., the urine is centrifuged at 4° C. and assayed for survivin.

[0078] 4. Agents that Detect Survivin

[0079] Agents that are capable of detecting survivin in the biological fluids of patients are those that interact with survivin or the nucleic acid encoding survivin. Examples of such agents include, but are not limited to survivin antibodies or fragments thereof that bind survivin, survivin binding partners such as p34^(cdc2)-cyclin B1 kinase, and nucleic acids that hybridize to the nucleic acid encoding survivin.

[0080] Survivin Antibodies

[0081] Survivin antibodies have been prepared and used by the skilled artisan. Lu et al. (Cancer Res., 1998, 58(9): 1808-12) teach the preparation of mouse monoclonal survivin antibodies from recombinantly produced survivin/glutathione S-transferase fusion protein for immunohistochemical analysis of gastric carcinomas. Grossman et al. (J. Invest. Dermatol., 1999, 113: 1076-81) disclose the use of rabbit polyclonal antibodies to detect survivin in human metastatic malignant melanoma cell lines. (See also WO 98/22589, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.)

[0082] Survivin or survivin peptides may be used to raise antibodies using standard immunological procedures well known and described in the art (Practical Immunology, Butt, ed., Marchel Dekker, New York, 1984). Briefly, an isolated survivin or survivin peptide produced, for example, by recombinant DNA expression in a host cell, is used to raise antibodies in a xenogenic host. Preferred antibodies are antibodies that bind specifically to an epitope on the survivin protein, preferably having a binding affinity greater than about 10⁵ M⁻¹, most preferably having an affinity greater than about 10⁷ M⁻¹ for that epitope. For example, where antibodies to a human survivin protein are desired, a suitable antibody generating host is a mouse, goat, rabbit, guinea pig, or other mammal useful for generating antibodies. The survivin protein or peptide is combined with a suitable adjuvant capable of enhancing antibody production in the host, and injected into the host, for example, by intraperitoneal administration. Any adjuvant suitable for stimulating the host's immune response may be used. A currently preferred adjuvant is Freund's complete adjuvant (an emulsion comprising killed and dried microbial cells, e.g., from Calbiochem Corp., San Diego, or Gibco, Grand Island, N.Y.). Where multiple antigen injections are desired, the subsequent injections comprise the antigen in combination with an incomplete adjuvant (e.g. cell-free emulsion).

[0083] In a preferred embodiment, the disclosed method of detecting the presence of survivin in biological fluids is performed using antibodies that bind specifically to survivin. Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies that bind specifically to survivin may be prepared by methods known in the art. Antibodies include recombinant polyclonal or monoclonal Fab fragments prepared in accordance with the method of Huse et al. (Science, 1989, 246: 1275-1281; see also Campbell, “Monoclonal Antibody Technology, The Production and Characterization of Rodent and Human Hybridomas” in Burdon et al., Eds, Laboratory Techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1985 Volume 13, Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam).

[0084] As mentioned above, methods for preparing polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are well known to the skilled artisan. Briefly, polyclonal antibodies may be produced by injecting a host mammal, such as a rabbit, mouse, rat, or goat, with the survivin protein or a survivin peptide or fragment. Sera from the mammal are extracted and screened to obtain polyclonal antibodies that are specific to the peptide or peptide fragment.

[0085] The survivin protein, peptide, or fragment for generation of antibodies may be obtained by isolation from its natural source, by recombinant means, or by synthetic means.

[0086] In order to produce monoclonal antibodies, a host mammal is inoculated with a survivin protein or peptide and then boosted. Spleens are collected from inoculated mammals a few days after the final boost. Cell suspensions from the spleens are fused with a tumor cell in accordance with the general method described by Kohler and Milstein (Nature, 1975, 256: 495-497). In order to be useful, a peptide fragment must contain sufficient amino acid residues to define the epitope of the survivin molecule being detected.

[0087] If the fragment is too short to be immunogenic, it may be conjugated to a carrier molecule. Some suitable carrier molecules include keyhole limpet hemocyanin and bovine serum albumin. Conjugation may be carried out by methods known in the art. One such method is to combine a cysteine residue of the fragment with a cysteine residue on the carrier molecule. The peptide fragments may be synthesized by methods known in the art. Some suitable methods are described by Stuart and Young in “Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis,” Second Edition, Pierce Chemical Company (1984).

[0088] Purification of the antibodies or fragments can be accomplished by a variety of methods known to those of skill including, precipitation by ammonium sulfate or sodium sulfate followed by dialysis against saline, ion exchange chromatography, affinity or immunoaffinity chromatography as well as gel filtration, zone electrophoresis, etc. (Goding in, Monoclonal Antibodies: Principles and Practice, 2d ed., pp. 104-126, Orlando, Fla., Academic Press). It is preferable to use purified antibodies or purified fragments of the antibodies having at least a portion of a survivin binding region, including such as Fv, F(ab′)₂, Fab fragments (Harlow and Lane, 1988, Antibody Cold Spring Harbor) for the detection of survivin in the fluids of cancer patients, preferably in the urine of bladder cancer patients.

[0089] For use in detection of and/or monitoring cancer and for predicting the recurrence of cancer, the purified antibodies can be covalently attached, either directly or via linker, to a compound which serves as a reporter group to permit detection of the presence of survivin. A variety of different types of substances can serve as the reporter group, including but not limited to enzymes, dyes, radioactive metal and non-metal isotopes, fluorogenic compounds, fluorescent compounds, etc. Methods for preparation of antibody conjugates of the antibodies (or fragments thereof) of the invention useful for detection, monitoring are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,671,958; 4,741,900 and 4,867,973.

[0090] In one aspect of the invention, preferred binding epitopes may be identified from a known survivin gene sequence and its encoded amino acid sequence and used to generate survivin antibodies with high binding affinity. Also, identification of binding epitopes on survivin can be used in the design and construction of preferred antibodies. For example, a DNA encoding a preferred epitope on survivin may be recombinantly expressed and used to select an antibody which binds selectively to that epitope. The selected antibodies then are exposed to the sample under conditions sufficient to allow specific binding of the antibody to the specific binding epitope on survivin and the amount of complex formed then detected. Specific antibody methodologies are well understood and described in the literature. A more detailed description of their preparation can be found, for example, in Practical Immunology, Butt, W. R., ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1984.

[0091] The present invention also contemplates the detection of survivin antibodies. Survivin is a cancer specific marker. Thus, detection of survivin antibodies in biological fluids of a patient may enable the diagnosis of cancer.

[0092] Survivin Binding Partners

[0093] Other molecules that bind survivin can also be used to detect the presence of survivin in biological fluids. Examples of survivin binding partners, other than survivin antibodies, include but are not limited to p34^(cdc2)-cyclin B1 kinase and caspase-9. (See WO 01/64741, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety).

[0094] Nucleic Acids

[0095] Nucleic acids including naturally occurring nucleic acids, oligonucleotides, antisense oligonucleotides, and synthetic oligonucleotides that hybridize to the nucleic acid encoding survivin, are useful as agents to detect the presence of survivin in the biological fluids of cancer patients, preferably in the urine of bladder cancer patients. Ambrosini et al. (Nat Med, 1997, 3: 917-921) disclose cloning of the survivin gene. Nucleic acids and oligonucleotides that are useful agents for the present invention include but are not limited to those corresponding to the survivin gene isolated by Ambrosini et al. (Nat Med, 1997, 3:917-921). The present invention includes the use of nucleic acid sequences corresponding to the coding sequence of survivin and to the complementary sequence thereof, as well as sequences complementary to the survivin transcript sequences occurring further upstream or downstream from the coding sequence (e.g., sequences contained in, or extending into, the 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions) for use as agents for detecting the expression of survivin in biological fluids of cancer patients, preferably in the urine of bladder cancer patients.

[0096] The preferred oligonucleotides for detecting the presence of survivin in biological fluids are those that are complementary to at least part of the cDNA sequence encoding survivin. These complementary sequences are also known in the art as “antisense” sequences. These oligonucleotides may be oligoribonucleotides or oligodeoxyribonucleotides. In addition, oligonucleotides may be natural oligomers composed of the biologically significant nucleotides, i.e., A (adenine), dA (deoxyadenine), G (guanine), dG (deoxyguanine), C (cytosine), dC (deoxycytosine), T (thymine) and U (uracil), or modified oligonucleotide species, substituting, for example, a methyl group or a sulfur atom for a phosphate oxygen in the inter-nucleotide phosohodiester linkage. Additionally, these nucleotides themselves, and/or the ribose moieties may be modified.

[0097] The oligonucleotides may be synthesized chemically, using any of the known chemical oligonucleotide synthesis methods well described in the art. For example, the oligonucleotides are prepared by using any of the commercially available, automated nucleic acid synthesizers. Alternatively, the oligonucleotides may be created by standard recombinant DNA techniques, for example, inducing transcription of the noncoding strand. The DNA sequence encoding survivin may be inverted in a recombinant DNA system, e.g., inserted in reverse orientation downstream of a suitable promoter, such that the noncoding strand now is transcribed.

[0098] Although any length oligonucleotide may be utilized to hybridize to a nucleic acid encoding survivin, oligonucleotides typically within the range of 8-100 nucleotides are preferred. Most preferable oligonucleotides for use in detecting survivin in urine samples are those within the range of 15-50 nucleotides.

[0099] The oligonucleotide selected for hybridizing to the survivin nucleic acid, whether synthesized chemically or by recombinant DNA technology, is then isolated and purified using standard techniques and then preferably labeled (e.g., with ³⁵S or ³²P) using standard labeling protocols.

[0100] The present invention also includes the use of oligonucleotide pairs in polymerase chain reactions (PCR) that are qualitative, semiquantitative, or nonquantitative to detect the expression of survivin in biological fluids. The oligonucleotide pairs consist of a survivin primer and a reverse survivin primer. The preferred oligonucleotide pairs are SEQ ID NO: 1 and SEQ ID NO: 2. More preferably, the oligonucleotide pairs are SEQ ID NO: 3 and SEQ ID NO: 4.

[0101] 5. Methods of Detection

[0102] Protein Binding Assays

[0103] As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, any means for specifically identifying and/or quantifying a survivin protein in the biological fluid of a cancer patient is contemplated. The currently preferred means for detecting survivin protein in a sample is by means of a binding protein capable of interacting specifically with a marker protein. Preferably, labeled antibodies, binding portions thereof, or other survivin binding partners may be used. The antibodies may be monoclonal or polyclonal in origin, or may be biosynthetically produced. The survivin binding partners may also be naturally occurring molecules or synthetically produced. The amount of complexed survivin protein, e.g., the amount of survivin protein associated with the binding protein, is determined using standard protein detection methodologies described in the art. In other assays, the presence of survivin is detected without quantitating the amount. A detailed review of immunological assay design, theory and protocols can be found in numerous texts in the art, including Practical Immunology, Butt, W. R., ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 1984.

[0104] A variety of assays are available for detecting proteins with labeled antibodies. In a one-step assay, the survivin molecule, if it is present, is immobilized and incubated with a labeled antibody. The labeled antibody binds to the immobilized target molecule. After washing to remove unbound molecules, the sample is assayed for the presence of the label.

[0105] In a two-step assay, immobilized survivin molecule is incubated with an unlabeled antibody. The survivin-unlabeled antibody complex, if present, is then bound to a second, labeled antibody that is specific for the unlabeled antibody. The sample is washed and assayed for the presence of the label.

[0106] The choice of marker used to label the antibodies will vary depending upon the application. However, the choice of the marker is readily determinable to one skilled in the art. These labeled antibodies may be used in immunoassays as well as in histological applications to detect the presence of tumors. The labeled antibodies may be polyclonal or monoclonal. In a preferred embodiment, the antibodies are polyclonal rabbit antibodies.

[0107] The antibodies may be labeled with a radioactive atom, an enzyme, a chromophoric or fluorescent moiety, or a colorimetric tag. The choice of tagging label also will depend on the detection limitations desired. Enzyme assays (ELISAs) typically allow detection of a colored product formed by interaction of the enzyme-tagged complex with an enzyme substrate. Some examples of radioactive atoms include ³²P, ¹²⁵I, ³H, and ¹⁴P. Some examples of enzymes include horseradish peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase, beta-galactosidase, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Some examples of chromophoric moieties include fluorescein and rhodamine. The antibodies may be conjugated to these labels by methods known in the art. For example, enzymes and chromophoric molecules may be conjugated to the antibodies by means of coupling agents, such as dialdehydes, carbodiimides, dimaleimides, and the like. Alternatively, conjugation may occur through a ligand-receptor pair. Some suitable ligand-receptor pairs include, for example, biotin-avidin or -streptavidin, and antibody-antigen.

[0108] The most sensitive label known to date is a chemiluminescent tag in which interaction of the tag with a reactant results in the production of light. Useful labels include chemiluminescent molecules such as acridinium esters or chemiluminescent enzymes where the reactant is an enzyme substrate. When, for example, acridium esters are reacted with an alkaline peroxide solution, an intense flash of light is emitted, allowing the limit of detection to be increased 100 to 10,000 times over those provided by other labels. In addition, the reaction is rapid. A detailed review of chemiluminescence and immunoassays can be found in Weeks et al. (Methods in Enzymology, 1983, 133: 366-387), Kawaguichi et al. (Stabilized Phenyl Acridinium Esters For Chemiluminescent Immunoassay—Bioluminescence and Chemiluminescence, Proceedings of 9th International Symposium 1996, Edited by Hastings, Kricka and Stanley, John Wiley & Sons, 1997, pp. 480-484), and U.S. Pat. No. 5,468,646. Other considerations for fluid assays include the use of microtiter wells or column immunoassays. Column assays may be particularly advantageous where rapidly reacting labels, such as chemiluminescent labels, are used. The tagged complex can be eluted to a post-column detector which also contains the reactant or enzyme substrate, allowing the subsequent product formed to, be detected immediately.

[0109] In one aspect, the present invention contemplates the use of a sandwich technique for detecting survivin proteins in serum and other biological fluids. As described in PCT Publication WO93/09437, published May 13, 1993, the technique requires two antibodies capable of binding the protein of interest: e.g., one immobilized onto a solid support, and one free in solution, but labeled with some easily detectable chemical compound. Examples of chemical labels that may be used for the second antibody include but are not limited to radioisotopes, fluorescent compounds, and enzymes or other molecules which generate colored or electrochemically active products when exposed to a reactant or enzyme substrate. When samples containing the survivin protein are placed in this system, the survivin protein binds to both the immobilized antibody and the labeled antibody. The result is a “sandwich” immune complex on the support's surface. The complexed protein is detected by washing away nonbound sample components and excess labeled antibody, and measuring the amount of labeled antibody complexed to protein on the support's surface. The sandwich immunoassay is highly specific and very sensitive, provided that labels with good limits of detection are used.

[0110] The present invention also contemplates screening numerous samples of biological fluids at the same time. This can be performed using the conventional 96-well microtiter format which is widely used and easily automatable. There are also several commercially available spectrometers (“plate readers”) for calorimetrically analyzing 96-well plates.

[0111] Preferably, the presence of survivin in a sample of bodily fluid is detected by radioimmunoassays or enzyme-linked immunoassays, competitive binding enzyme-linked immunoassays, dot blot, Western blot, chromatography, preferably high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), or other assays known in the art.

[0112] Dot blotting is routinely practiced by the skilled artisan to detect a desired protein using an antibody as a probe (Promega Protocols and Applications Guide, Second Edition, 1991, Page 263, Promega Corporation). Samples are applied to a membrane using a dot blot apparatus. A labeled probe is incubated with the membrane, and the presence of the protein is detected.

[0113] Western blot analysis is well known to the skilled artisan (Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual, 1989, Vol. 3, Chapter 18, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory). In Western blot, the sample is separated by SDS-PAGE. The gel is transferred to a membrane. The membrane is incubated with labeled antibody for detection of the desired protein.

[0114] The assays described above involve steps such as but not limited to, immunoblotting, immunodiffusion, immunoelectrophoresis, or immunoprecipitation.

[0115] Preferably, the survivin is detected by dot blotting or by Western blotting. More preferably, survivin is detected in the biological fluid of cancer patients by dot blotting using the Bio-Dot method and the Bio-Dot SF module.

[0116] Nucleic Acid Detection

[0117] The presence of survivin in a sample of biological fluid of a patient may also be determined by nucleic acid hybridization, such as but not limited to Northern blot analysis, dot blotting, microarray hybridization, Southern blot analysis, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and PCR. Chromatography, preferably HPLC, and other known assays may also be used to determine messenger RNA levels of survivin in a sample.

[0118] The survivin DNA conceivably may be found in the biological fluids inside a survivin-positive cancer cell that is being shed or released in the fluid under investigation.

[0119] In one aspect, the present invention contemplates the use of nucleic acids as agents for detecting survivin in biological fluids of patients, wherein the nucleic acids are labeled. The nucleic agents may be labeled with a radioactive label, a fluorescent label, an enzyme, a chemiluminescent tag, a calorimetric tag or other labels or tags that are discussed above or that are known in the art.

[0120] In another aspect, the present invention contemplates the use of Northern blot analysis to detect the presence of survivin mRNA in a sample of bodily fluid. The first step of the analysis involves separating a sample containing survivin nucleic acid by gel electrophoresis. The dispersed nucleic acids are then transferred to a nitrocellulose filter or another filter. Subsequently, the labeled oligonucleotide is exposed to the filter under suitable hybridizing conditions, e.g. 50% formamide, 5×SSPE, 2× Denhardt's solution, 0.1% SDS at 42° C., as described in Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Maniatis et al. (1982, CSH Laboratory). Other useful procedures known in the art include solution hybridization, dot and slot RNA hybridization, and probe based microarrays. Measuring the radioactivity of hybridized fragments, using standard procedures known in the art quantitates the amount of survivin nucleic acid present in the biological fluid of a patient.

[0121] Dot blotting involves applying samples containing the nucleic acid of interest to a membrane. The nucleic acid can be denatured before or after application to the membrane. The membrane is incubated with a labeled probe. Dot blot procedures are well known to the skilled artisan and are described more fully in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,582,789 and 4,617,261, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference.

[0122] Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a process for amplifying one or more specific nucleic acid sequences present in a nucleic acid sample using primers and agents for polymerization and then detecting the amplified sequence. The extension product of one primer when hybridized to the other becomes a template for the production of the desired specific nucleic acid sequence, and vice versa, and the process is repeated as often as is necessary to produce the desired amount of the sequence. The skilled artisan to detect the presence of desired sequence (U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,195) routinely uses polymerase chain reaction.

[0123] A specific example of PCR that is routinely performed by the skilled artisan to detect desired sequences is reverse transcript PCR (RT-PCR; Saiki et al., Science, 1985, 230:1350; Scharf et al., Science, 1986, 233:1076). RT-PCR involves isolating total RNA from biological fluid, denaturing the RNA in the presence of primers that recognize the desired nucleic acid sequence, using the primers to generate a cDNA copy of the RNA by reverse transcription, amplifying the cDNA by PCR using specific primers, and detecting the amplified cDNA by electrophoresis or other methods known to the skilled artisan.

[0124] In a preferred embodiment, the methods of detecting survivin nucleic acid in biological fluids of cancer patients, preferably urine of bladder cancer patients, include Northern blot analysis, dot blotting, Southern blot analysis, FISH, and PCR. More preferably, the method of detection is RT-PCR using the following two sets of primers: SEQ ID NO: 1 and 2 and SEQ ID NO: 3 and 4.

[0125] 6. Kits for Diagnosing Cancer

[0126] In one aspect, the present invention includes kits comprising the required elements for diagnosing cancer. Preferably, the kits comprise a container for collecting biological fluid from a patient and an agent for detecting the presence of survivin or its encoding nucleic acid in the fluid. The components of the kits can be packaged either in aqueous medium or in lyophilized form.

[0127] Kits for diagnosing or monitoring cancer and predicting the recurrence of cancer containing one or more agents that detect the survivin protein, such as but not limited to survivin antibodies, fragments thereof, or survivin binding partners can be prepared. The agent(s) can be packaged with a container for collecting the biological fluid from a patient. When the antibodies or binding partner are used in the kits in the form of conjugates in which a label is attached, such as a radioactive metal ion or a moiety, the components of such conjugates can be supplied either in fully conjugated form, in the form of intermediates or as separate moieties to be conjugated by the user of the kit.

[0128] Kits containing one or more agents that detect survivin nucleic acid, such as but not limited to the full length survivin nucleic acid, survivin oligonucleotides, and pairs of survivin primers can also be prepared. The agents can be packaged with a container for collecting biological fluid from a patient. The nucleic acid can be in the labeled form or to be labeled form.

[0129] Other components of the kit may include but are not limited to, means for collecting biological fluid, means for labeling the agent, membranes for immobilizing the survivin or survivin nucleic acid in the biological fluid, means for applying the biological fluid to the membrane, means for binding the agent to survivin in the biological fluid of a patient, a second antibody, a means for isolating total RNA from a biological fluid of a patient, means for performing gel electrophoresis, means for generating cDNA from isolated total RNA, means for performing hybridization assays, and means for performing PCR, etc.

[0130] 7. Uses for Assays and Kits of the Present Invention

[0131] The assays or methods and kits of the present invention are useful for diagnosis, prognosis, and/or monitoring cancer in a patient and for predicting recurrent cancer in a patient. In one aspect of the invention, the presence of survivin in the biological fluid of a patient indicates that the patient has cancer. The cancer could be a new onset cancer or a recurrent cancer. As used herein, the term “recurrent cancer” means that the cancer has come back (recurred) after it has been treated. As used herein the term “new onset cancer” refers to newly developed cancer.

[0132] Survivin may be detected in biological fluids from any of the cancers where survivin is expressed and secreted, released, or found in a bodily fluid. Survivin is expressed in cancers of the lung, colon, pancreas, breast, prostate (Ambrosini et al., Nat. Med., 1997, 3:917-21), bladder (Swana et al., N. Engl. J. Med., 1999, 341: 452-53), and in non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Expression of survivin in neuroblastoma, breast, lung bladder and colorectal cancers correlated with unfavorable disease and abbreviated survival (Adida et al., Lancet, 1998, 351: 882-83; Islam et al., Oncogene, 2000, 19: 617-23; Tanaka et al., Clin. Cancer Res., 2000, 6: 127-34; Monzo et al., J. Clin. Oncol., 1999, 17: 2100-04; Kawasaki et al., Cancer Res., 1998, 58: 5071-74; Swana et al., N. Engl. J. Med., 1999, 341: 452-53).

[0133] Survivin may be released by exfoliated cancer cells into the extracellular environment during tumor progression. Accordingly, any biological fluid from a patient can be assayed for the presence of survivin. Preferably, human bodily fluids such as prostatic fluid, seminal fluid, whole blood, serum, urine, breast biopsy fluid, gastrointestinal fluid, and vaginal fluid can be taken from a patient and screened for the presence of survivin.

[0134] In a preferred embodiment, the methods and kits of the present invention are used to diagnose new on-set and predict recurrent genitourinary tract cancer including bladder cancer, prostate cancer, and renal cancer by detecting survivin in the biological fluids of patients. More preferably, the methods and kits of the present invention are used to diagnose bladder cancer by detecting the presence of survivin in the urine samples of patients. The presence of survivin in the urine samples of a patient indicates that the patient has bladder cancer.

[0135] In another aspect, the methods and kits of the present invention may be used to quantitate the amount of survivin in the biological fluid of a patient. The amount of survivin in the biological fluid of a patient may be useful for grading the cancer. A high level of survivin in the biological fluid of a patient may indicate that the cancer is of a high grade. Alternatively, the methods and kits of the present invention may be used to determine the stage of the cancer in a patient. A cancer of the CIS stage has a higher level of survivin than the cancer of the non-invasive papillary carcinoma stage. A certain level of survivin in the biological fluid of a patient in remission may predict the recurrence of cancer.

[0136] As used herein, the term “papillary carcinoma” refers to a malignant neoplasm characterized by the formation of numerous, irregular, fingerlike projections of fibrous stroma that is covered with a surface layer of neoplastic epithelial cells.

[0137] As used herein, the term “carcinoma in situ (CIS)” is synonymous with intraepithelial carcinoma. The term when used to refer to bladder cancer means a flat tumor in the bladder lining (the transitional cells).

[0138] Further, the amount of survivin quantitated from the biological fluid of a patient may be used to monitor the progression of the cancer in the patient and to determine the prognosis of a cancer patient. For example, the amount of survivin measured over a period of time provides information as to how fast the cancer is growing.

[0139] Urine survivin can be used as a quick and inexpensive method for monitoring patients and predicting recurrence of cancer in patients in remission. The urine survivin test can be integrated in a battery of urine markers to improve the sensitivity and specificity of early detection of recurrences.

[0140] It is contemplated that after patients are tested positive for survivin in their biological fluids, they will be further tested using more invasive and expensive approaches, such as cystoscopy.

[0141] In light of the foregoing general discussion, the specific examples presented below are illustrative only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. Other generic and specific configurations will be apparent to those persons skilled in the art.

EXAMPLES Materials and Methods

[0142] Urine Specimens: One hundred fifty eight urine specimens were collected at the urology clinics at Yale-New Haven Hospital and at the Veterans Administration, New England Health Care Systems, West Haven, Conn. Division. Random clean-catch or straight catheter urine samples were obtained from individuals who were categorized into 5 different groups. Group 1, normal healthy volunteers of mean age of 47.6±20.8 years taking no medications (n=17). Group 2, patients of mean age of 60.0±18.1 years with diagnosis of non-neoplastic urinary tract disease or hematuria (n=30). Group 3, patients of mean age of 71.5±9.9 years with diagnosis of genitourinary cancer, excluding bladder cancer (n=30). Group 4, patients of mean age of 69.7±8.7 years with diagnosis of new onset or recurrent bladder cancer (n=46). Group 5, patients of mean age of 76.1±8.9 years who were undergoing treatment or had already received treatment for bladder cancer and had a negative cytoscopic evaluation on the day of urine collection (n=35). Treatment measures in group 5 included intravesical bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG), thiotepa, transurethral resection, partial cystectomy and radiation. Group 4 included patients who after urine collection underwent similar treatment measures and/or salvage cystectomy or radical cystectomy.

[0143] Statistical Analysis: The relationship between urine survivin and patients' diagnosis was analyzed by a Chi square test. Non-parametric statistical analysis was used to compare the weighted urine survivin score with the grading classification system performed at the Yale-New Haven Hospital.

Example 1 Urine Detection of Survivin using the Bio-Dot SF Module

[0144] Urine specimens were filtered onto a nitrocellulose membrane using a microfiltration apparatus in a module providing a 48-well slot format. The blot was analyzed for the presence of survivin using a polyclonal antibody. The protocol is as follows: urine was collected and stored at −80° C. until analysis. On the day of analysis, urine samples were centrifuged at 20,000×g for 20 min. Meanwhile, the Bio-Dot Microfiltration Apparatus was assembled with a 0.2 μm nitrocellulose membrane (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, Calif.) and moistened in 20 mM Tris-buffered saline (pH 7.5). Then, the urine supernatant (300 μl) along with increasing concentrations of E. coli-expressed recombinant survivin (Li et al., Nature, 1998, 396: 580-84) as a standard (0.001-1.0 μg/ml) in 300 μl of TBS were filtered onto the membrane. After filtration, the membrane was dried, blocked in 5% Blotto and 0.01% sodium azide in PBS, pH 7.4, for 12 h at 4° C. After washing in PBS-Tween 20 (0.25%), the membrane was incubated with 2 μg/ml of a rabbit antibody to survivin (Grossman et al., J. Invest. Dermatol., 1999, 113:1076-81.) for 3 h at 22° C., washed in PBS-Tween, and incubated with a 1:1000 dilution of horseradish peroxidase-conjugated donkey anti-rabbit IgG (Amersham Biotech, Piscataway N.J.) for 1 h at 22° C. After washes in PBS×2 for 10 min, PBS-Tween×2 for 5 min, and PBS×2 for 5 min, binding of the primary antibody was detected by enhanced chemiluminescence (Amersham) and autoradiography. Bands were quantitated by densitometry and a weighted survivin score was calculated on the basis of the antibody reactivity with increasing concentrations of recombinant survivin as follows: 0=not detectable; 1=0.001-0.25 μg/ml; 2=0.25-1 μg/ml; and 3=>1 μg/ml. Each urine specimen was analyzed at least twice on two different occasions and comparable results were obtained.

Example 2 Western Blotting

[0145] Urine specimens (100 ml) were centrifuged at 1,200×g for 10 min at 22° C., and the cell pellet was washed twice in TBS and solubilized in 0.5% Triton X-100 in the presence of protease inhibitors for 30 min at 4° C. Samples were separated by SDS gel electrophoresis, transferred to nylon membranes (Millipore, Corp.), and further incubated with 1 μg/ml of an antibody to survivin (Grossman et al., J. Invest. Dermatol., 1999, 113:1076-81) followed by horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG and chemiluminescence.

Example 3 RT-PCR

[0146] Fifty milliliters of clean catch urine was obtained from 15 patients with new or recurrent urothelial cancer, 2 patients with treated bladder cancer, 1 patient with prostate cancer, 1 patient with non-neoplastic urinary tract disease and 1 healthy volunteer. Total RNA was isolated from urine pellets using the Trizol reagent (Life Technologies, Inc., Gaithersburg, Md., USA). Single strand cDNA was synthesized by random priming of 1-5 jig total RNA using 1 μl of Superscript reverse transcriptase (Gibco BRL, Life Technologies, Inc., Gaithersburg, Md., USA) for 1 h at 43° C. After heating at 70° C. for 15 min, a first amplification reaction was carried out with survivin primers 5′-CTGCCTGGCAGCCCTTTCTCAA-3′ (forward; SEQ ID NO: 1) and 5′AATAAACCCTGGAAGTGGTGCA-3′ (reverse; SEQ ID NO: 2) with denaturation at 94° C. for 15 sec, annealing at 53° C. for 15 sec and extension at 72° C. for 1 min for 20 cycles, followed by incubation at 72° C. for 5 min. A 463-base pair (bp) fragment of the survivin cDNA was subjected to a second round of amplification with nested survivin primers 5′-CCGCATCTCTACATTCAAGAAC-3′ (forward; SEQ ID NO: 3) and 5′-CTTGGCTCTTTCTCTGTCC-3′ (reverse; SEQ ID NO: 4), with denaturation at 94° C. for 30 sec, annealing at 60° C. for 30 sec, and extension at 72° C. for 45 sec for 30 cycles, followed by incubation at 72° C. for 5 min. The amplified survivin cDNA of 279 bp was separated on a 2.0% agarose gel and visualized by ethidium bromide staining. Control reactions were amplified using P-actin-specific primers 5′-AGCGGGAAATCGTGCGTG-3′ (forward; SEQ ID NO: 5) and 5′-CAGGGTACATGGTGGTGCC-3′ (reverse; SEQ ID NO: 6) with generation of a 309-bp fragment.

Results

[0147] A representative experiment of detection of urine survivin using the Bio-Dot test is shown in FIG. 1. Determination of urine survivin with the Bio-Dot method was carried out in 138 out of the 158 specimens collected for this study (Table 1). Twenty additional urine samples were analyzed for survivin expression by RT-PCR to independently evaluate the specificity of the Bio-Dot method. Survivin was not detected in urine of normal volunteers (0/16), or patients with benign prostate hyperplasia (0/6), interstitial cystitis (0/2), renal calculi (0/3), urinary tract infection (0/6), or other non-neoplastic urinary tract disease (0/6) (Table 1). Urine survivin was detected in 3 out of 5 patients with cryptogenic hematuria (weighted survivin score, 2), who presented with a history of retention and dysuria post trans-urethral prostate resection, and revealed a trabeculated, irregularly thickened bladder, by cystoscopy. One patient with increased PSA levels but without diagnosis of prostate cancer was positive for urine survivin (Table 1). This patient also revealed a trabeculated, thickened bladder, by cystoscopy. Survivin was not detected in urine specimens of patients with prostate (0/19), renal (0/8), vaginal (0/1), or cervical (0/1) cancer (Table 1). In contrast, urine survivin was detected in all patients (31/31) with new onset or recurrent bladder cancer (Table 1). Histopathologic grading (grades I through IV) of the 31 patients in group 4 analyzed for urine survivin by Bio-Dot SF included 13 patients with grade II, seven patients with grade III, and five patients with grade IV tumors. Carcinoma in situ (CIS) was found in association with the papillary and invasive carcinomas of 5 patients and in association with high grade urothelial cancer of the ureter in one patient. TABLE 1 Survivin Detection in 138 Urine Specimens by the Bio-Dot SF module. Survivin- Survivin- Urine specimens (n) negative positive Group 1 (control healthy volunteers) 16  16 0 Group 2 (Non-neoplastic urinary tract 29  diseases) Hematuria 5 2 3 UTI 6 6 0 BPH 6 6 0 Rising PSA 1 0 1 Interstitial cystitis 2 2 0 Renal calculi 3 3 0 Other† 6 6 0 Group 3 (Genito-urinary cancers except 29  bladder) Prostate 19  19 0 Renal 8 8 0 Vaginal 1 1 0 Cervical 1 1 0 Group 4 (new or recurrent bladder cancer) 31§ 0 31  Group 5 (treated bladder cancer¶) 33  30 3‡

[0148] Thirty of 33 patients in group 5 analyzed by Bio-Dot SF had no detectable urine survivin (Table 1). Five of these 30 patients were receiving BCG and had completed 3-5 treatments, the other 25 were status post-treatment with negative cystoscopy. Three patients in group 5 with initial diagnosis of GII non-invasive bladder cancer tested positive for urine survivin after undergoing negative cystoscopic examination. One of the 3 patients had urine cytology positive for bladder cancer. Two of the 3 patients were treated with transurethral resection of the bladder tumor and one was treated with fulguration.

[0149] When normalized for a weighted survivin score, patients with CIS had considerably higher survivin score (2.5±0.5, n=6) than patients with grade II bladder cancer (1.3±0.6, n=13). The correlation between weighted survivin score and histopathology or grading of the various bladder cancer cases is shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. TABLE 2 Correlation Between Weighted Urine Survivin Score and Bladder Cancer Histopathology. Histopathology Cases tested Average survivin score ND 3 1.7 ± 1.2 Non-invasive papillary carcinoma 4 1 ± 0 No detrusor muscle invasion 12 1.6 ± 0.8 Muscle invasion 6 1.7 ± 0.8 CIS 6  2.5 ± 0.5†

[0150] TABLE 3 Correlation Between Weighted Urine Survivin Score and Bladder Cancer Grading. Grade Cases tested Average survivin score Grade II 13 1.3 ± 0.6 Grade III 7 1.5 ± 0.8 Grade IV 5 2 ± 1 Grade IV 1 3*

[0151] By Western blotting, a single survivin band of 16.5 kDa was detected in the urine cell pellet from a patient with bladder cancer but not in that from a healthy volunteer (FIG. 2).

[0152] To independently evaluate the results obtained with the Bio-Dot method, 15 additional patients with new or recurrent bladder cancer were analyzed for urine survivin by RT-PCR. A 279 bp survivin cDNA was amplified from urine cell pellets of all the 15 new patients with bladder cancer (15/15) (FIG. 3 and data not shown). In contrast, urine cell pellets from 5 additional individuals, one with urinary tract infection, two with treated bladder cancer and negative cystoscopy, one with prostate cancer, and one from a normal volunteer, had no survivin cDNA (FIG. 3). In control experiments, a 309 bp β-actin cDNA fragment was indistinguishably amplified from urine of controls and patients with bladder cancer (FIG. 3). Histopathologic cases of bladder cancer analyzed by RT-PCR included five patients with grade II tumors, one patient with grade III, six patients with grade IV and 3 patients with CIS. These experiments suggest that exfoliated cancer cells passively release survivin in the extracellular milieu, i.e. urine, during tumor progression.

[0153] In the patient series examined here, the sensitivity of the urine survivin test for new or recurrent bladder cancer was 100%, and its specificity for other neoplastic and non-neoplastic genito-urinary diseases was 95% (p<0.02). Because of its high specificity, the urine survivin test may be useful to complement cytology and/or other diagnostics markers (Ramakumaretal., J. Urol. 1999, 161:388-94; Lokeshwaretal., J. Urol., 2000, 163:348-56) to better monitor bladder cancer patients and identify early recurrences or de novo neoplasms. Other potential advantages of the urine survivin test include its simplicity, suitability as a point-of-service procedure, and its cost-effectiveness, using one-step detection with a single antibody to survivin that has now become commercially available.

Example 4 Detection of Survivin in Blood Serum of Patients

[0154] Blood was collected from bladder and prostate cancer patients. The blood serum was isolated and tested for the presence of survivin by the dot blot method described in Example 1. Survivin was detected in the blood serum of bladder and prostate cancer patients. Increasing concentrations of recombinant survivin in μg/ml (left and right column), urine or serum samples were applied to a slot-blot apparatus. The membrane was incubated with an antibody to survivin followed by HRP-conjugated goat anti rabbit IgG. Bands were visualized by chemiluminescence.

[0155] The detection of survivin in blood serum of cancer patients indicates that survivin is useful as a marker for detecting other cancers. Testing the serum for the presence of survivin is useful for screening and for detection of recurrences and relapses of cancer.

Example 5 Effect of Intravesical Treatment of Transitional Cell Carcinoma with Bacillus Calmette-Guerin and Mitomycin C on Urinary Survivin Levels and Outcome

[0156] In the present invention, urine from 25 subjects receiving 27 intravesical treatments of BCG or mitomycin C for TCC are collected prior to, during, and after treatment. Urinary survivin levels are compared to outcome assessed by cytology and cystoscopy (±biopsy) one month and up to twelve months after completion of treatment.

[0157] Materials and Methods

[0158] Subjects: All urine collections were obtained at the Yale-New Haven Hospital, at the Veterans Affairs, New England Health Care System, West Haven, Conn. Division and at the offices of several community urologists in New Haven. The Yale University School of Medicine Human Investigation Committee and the VA Research Committee approved sample collection and experimental design. After cystoscopy and biopsy, a decision to treat with BCG (n=23) or mitomycin C (n=4) was made for 25 subjects with superficial TCC (average age 70 years, range 48-89 years, 12% female). Two subjects received two courses of treatments each for a sum of 27 treatments. Initial grade and stage for the 25 subjects were as follows: Grade I, 4%, Grade II, 48% and Grades III, IV, 48%; Stage Ta, 48%, Tis, 20% and T1, 32%). Twenty percent of the subjects had areas positive for carcinoma in situ (CIS).

[0159] A clean catch or catheterized urine was collected from each patient after transurethral resection of bladder tumors (TURBT) and immediately prior to the first intravesical instillation (pre-treatment), immediately prior to each of the remaining BCG or mitomycin C treatments, and approximately one month after completion of the course of treatment (post-treatment). No differences between survivin levels were found when clean catch and catherized urines were collected from the same patient. The highest urinary survivin was the highest survivin level measured during the course of the intravesical instillations. Average urinary survivin values are calculated from urines obtained prior to the second instillation through that obtained prior to the last intravesical instillation for each subject. Urine samples were collected and stored in aliquots at −80° C. until analysis.

[0160] Urine detection of survivin: The method is described by Smith et al. (JAMA, 2001, 285:324), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety, except for the use of longer incubation times with the primary antibody, longer times for detection of the chemiluminescent product and the use of frozen whole urine samples. Frozen whole urine samples frequently contain more survivin than urine samples that are centrifuged and the supernatants subsequently frozen. On the day of survivin analysis, urine samples were thawed and centrifuged at 20,000×g for 20 minutes. Meanwhile, the Bio-Dot Microfiltration Apparatus was assembled with a 0.2 g nitrocellulose membrane (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, Calif.) that had been moistened in 20 mM Tris-buffered saline (pH 7.5). Then, the urine supernatant (500 μl), along with increasing concentrations (0.1-100 ng/ml) of E. coli-expressed recombinant survivin (Li et al., Nature, 1998, 396:580) survivin negative protein controls and survivin positive and negative control urine samples were filtered onto the membrane. After filtration, the membrane was incubated (2 hours, 4° C.) with 5% nonfat dry milk and 0.01% sodium azide in PBS, pH 7.4. After washing in PBS-Tween 20 (0.5%), the membrane was incubated overnight at 4° C., with 2 ug/ml of a rabbit polyclonal antibody to survivin (Grossman et al., J. Invest. Dermatol. 1999, 113:1076) washed with PBS-Tween (0.05%), and incubated with a 1:1000 dilution of horseradish peroxidase-conjugated donkey anti-rabbit IgG (Amersham Biotech, Piscataway N.J.) (1 hour, 22° C.). After two washes each in PBS, PBS-Tween (0.05%) and PBS again, binding of the primary antibody was detected by enhanced chemiluminescence (Amersham Biotech, Piscataway N.J.). Blots were scanned and concentrations of survivin were determined using the Kodak Digital Science ID Image Analysis System (Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N.Y.).

[0161] Data analysis and statistics: Assignment of recurrence and remission status is determined by post treatment cystoscopy (±biopsy) and cytology results. Assignment of uncertain classification (n=3) consisted of subjects with suspicious cystoscopies and/or a typical cytologies whose biopsies were negative for TCC. Differences between groups were determined using Statview (SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.). Study results were expressed as the mean±standard error, and as the median. Outcome of treatment was analyzed using non-parametric analysis including the signed t test and Mann-Whitney U tests. The detection limit of the assay is 0.1 ng/ml survivin with no nonspecific background.

Results

[0162] Outcome of intravesical treatment: One month after completion of intravesical instillation, 15/27 treatments resulted in remission of TCC and 9/27 treatments had TCC recurrences as measured by cytology and cystoscopic±biopsy findings (Table 4). Three treatments had outcomes classified as uncertain. These consisted of 1) an instance in which initial post-treatment biopsies showed squamous metaplasia, but within 11 months there was the diagnosis of recurrent Grade 2/4 TCC; 2) an instance in which although post-treatment cytologies showed atypia and cystoscopic findings were visually suggestive of CIS, biopsies were negative for tumor one month following intravesical instillation of mytomycin C. This subject was diagnosed with a Grade 3-4/4 TCC with areas of CIS after 11 months; and 3) an instance in which although post treatment cystoscopies were visually suspicious for neoplasm, biopsies were negative. One out of four cytologies showed atypia in this subject diagnosed with both rectal and bladder cancer, both of which were in remission after one year. TABLE 4 Survivin Levels and Outcomes in Individual TCC Patients Prior to, During and After Intravesical Treatment. Post Pre Highest Treatment Treatment Survivin Survivin Subject Survivin (ng/ml (ng/ml Outcome Outcome No. Treatment Grade Stage (ng/ml urine) urine) urine) 1 month 6-12 months  1A Failed BCG 4 Tis 4.2 75.6 4.5 Treatment Stopped  1B Mitomycin C 4.5 32.6 40.9 Failed cystectomy treatment  2 Repeat BCG 2 Ta 0.5 0.6 0.4 Recurrence Prostate cancer  3 Repeat BCG 4 T1 1.7 1.9 1.1 Recurrence Grade 4/4 TCC  4 Primary 3 Ta 0.1 0.2 1.0 Recurrence Grade 3/4 BCG TCC  5 BCG 2 T1 1.9 2.0 1.1 Recurrence  6 BCG 3 Tis 0.7 2.2 1.0 Recurrence, Grade 2-3/4 CIS with TCC Brunn's Gland involvement  7 Primary 2 T1 0.3 0.8 0.6 No follow-up Recurrent BCG Grade 2/4 TCC after 12 months  8A Primary 3 Tis 0 7.8 0.8 Recurrence BCG  8B Repeat BCG 0.2 0.2 0 Remission Recurrence, high grade TCC of UVJ after 12 months  9 Repeat BCG 2 Ta 1.4 6.9 2.2 Cystoscopy, Recurrent squamous Grade 2/4 metaplasia; TCC after 11 negative months biopsy 10 Primary 3 Tis 2.8 7.8 0.8 Cystoscopy Recurrence BCG suggests CIS; after 11 atypical months, cytology Grade 3-4/4 TCC with CIS 11 Mitomycin C 3 Ta 0.2 0.5 0.4 Suspicious Suspicious cystoscopy; cystoscopy negative with biopsy negative biopsy, remission of rectal cancer 12 BCG 3 T1 0.2 0.5 0.1 Remission. Negative Negative cytology, cytology; elevated elevated PSA; PSA, renal renal mass mass consistent with renal cell carcinoma 13 Primary & 3 Tis 0.2 5.0 0 Remission No maintenance recurrence at BCG 12 months 14 Primary 2 Ta 1.1 0.9 1.0 Remission Recurrent BCG Grade 1-2/4 TCC after 6 months 15 Mitomycin C 3 T1 1.3 1.4 0 Remission Remission 16 Primary 1 Ta 0 0.5 0 Remission Remission BCG 17 Mitomycin C 2 Ta 0 0.2 0 Remission Remission 18 Repeat BCG 2 Ta 0 0.7 0 Remission Remission 19 Primary 2 Ta 0.9 0 Remission Remission BCG 20 Primary 2 Ta 0 0 0 Remission Remission BCG 21 Primary 2 T1 0.6 0.2 0 Remission Remission BCG 22 Primary 2 Ta 0 0.9 0 Remission Recurrent BCG Grade 1 TCC after 7 months 23 Primary 2 Ta 0 0 0 Remission Remission BCG 24 Primary 4 T1 0 3.0 0 Remission Remission BCG 25 Primary 3 T1 0 0.2 0 Remission Remission BCG

[0163] Pre treatment survivin levels: The median urinary survivin levels summed for all subjects after TURBT and prior to intravesical chemotherapeutic treatment was 0.2 ng survivin/ml urine (Table 5). Pre-treatment survivin levels were lower if the treatment resulted in remission (median; 0 ng survivin/ml urine, n=15), rather than recurrence (median: 0.7 ng/ml urine, n=9) (table 5). Eight of the subjects who achieved remission had no measurable survivin post resection and prior to treatment with BCG or mitomycin C (Table 4). Representative blots of urinary survivin levels from a subject who achieved remission and a subject who recurred are shown in FIG. 5. Treatments that resulted in outcomes classified as uncertain had higher survivin levels (median 1.4 ng/ml survivin, n=3) than treatments that resulted in remission. Two of these three were diagnosed with a bladder tumor within one year. TABLE 5 Relationship of Outcome Within One month of Completion of Intravesical Treatment to Average (mean ± SEM) and Median (italics) Survivin Levels. Pre Highest Post Treatment Treatment Average Treatment Survivin Survivin Treatment Survivin (ng./ml. (ng./ml. Survivin (ng./ml. Diagnosis n urine) urine) (ng./ml. urine) urine) Recurrent  9 1.5 ± 0.6*^(,†) 13.7 ± 8.5* 6.8 ± 5.0* 5.7 ± 4.4* 0.7 2.0 1.5 1.0 Uncertain  3 1.5 ± 0.7* 5.1 ± 2.3 2.2 ± 0.9 1.1 ± 0.6* 1.4 6.9 3.0 0.8 Remission 15 0.3 ± 0.1 1.0 ± 0.3 0.4 ± 0.1 0.1 ± 0.1^(†) 0.0 0.5 0.2 0 All 27 0.8 ± 0.2^(†) 5.7 ± 3.0 2.7 ± 1.7^(†) 2.1 ± 1.5^(†) 0.2 0.9 0.5 0.1

[0164] Survivin levels during treatment: The highest survivin level measured during treatment and summed for all subjects was higher than pre or post treatment survivin levels (Table 5, FIG. 5). When the highest survivin levels during treatment were compared to outcome measures, levels during treatments that resulted in remission were lower (median; 0.5 ng survivin/ml. urine) than levels during treatments where recurrence occurred (median; 2.0 ng survivin/ml. urine) (Table 5).

[0165] Post-treatment survivin levels compared with outcome measures: The median post treatment level of survivin for treatments that result in remission was zero (n=15)(Table 5). The 14 subjects with survivin levels ≦0.1 ng survivin/ml urine one month after treatment were all in remission. Twelve of these 14 were tumor free after one year, however one of these twelve recurred at 14 months following treatment. This subject (subject 13) had high urinary survivin during treatment, but achieved both zero survivin and remission one month post treatment. Two subsequent urines had zero survivin levels, but 8 months after completion of BCG treatment and prior to diagnosis of recurrence, the urinary survivin was positive.

[0166] Of the treatments classified as having an uncertain outcome, the median post treatment level for survivin was 0.8 ng survivin/ml urine (n=3). Of the treatments that resulted in recurrence, the median post treatment level for survivin was 1.0 ng survivin/ml urine (n=9). Immediately after treatment, survivin was detected in the urine of all the subjects who recurred. The subject with the highest survivin levels post treatment underwent a cystectomy for TCC. One subject whose urinary survivin was positive refused follow-up at one month and recurrent TCC was detected within one year.

[0167] Three of four subjects who were positive for survivin shortly after treatment, but who did not have a recurrence at that time developed a TCC recurrence within one year. One subject with a post treatment survivin level of 1.0 ng/ml urine and whose cystoscopy and cytology were negative for TCC shortly after treatment developed a TCC recurrence within six months after treatment. Two other subjects, with post-treatment survivin levels of 2.2 and 0.8 ng survivin/ml urine and with suspicious cystoscopic findings±an a typical cytology, but whose biopsy failed to be diagnostic of TCC, developed recurrent TCC within one year of completion of BCG instillation. One subject with a post treatment survivin level of 0.4 ng survivin/ml urine had a history of rectal cancer. Although this subject continues to have suspicious cystoscopic findings, the subject has not developed a clinically apparent bladder carcinoma.

[0168] Urinary survivin levels measured immediately following treatment predict treatment failure (i.e. recurrence within one month of treatment) with 100% sensitivity and 78% specificity. After one year, urinary survivin levels measured immediately following treatment still predict TCC recurrence with 83% sensitivity and 92% specificity (Table 6). TABLE 6 Positive Urinary Survivin Predicts Recurrence Cytology/ Cystoscopy Results 1 1 Survivin Levels Month^(a) Year^(b) (ng. survivin/ml urine)^(c) (+) (−) (+) (−) >0.1 ng./ml. 8  4 10  1 ≦0.1 ng./ml. 0 14  2 12 Sensitivity 100% 83% Specificity  78% 92% PPA  67% 91% NPA 100% 86%

Discussion

[0169] The post treatment median level of survivin in subjects who achieve remission one month after treatment of TCC is zero, while subjects whose TCC recurs have a post treatment median level of 1.0 ng survivin/ml of urine. Four subjects who did not have a recurrence had survivin in their urine when assessed one month following completion of a course of intravesical therapy, although three of the four had an uncertain classification. Within 12 months, three of these four subjects had recurrent TCC. The fourth subject had been diagnosed and treated for a second cancer in addition to TCC, i.e. a rectal-sigmoid carcinoma with lymphatic invasion, but despite several suspicious cystoscopies, bladder biopsies remain negative. The rectal-sigmoid carcinoma remains in remission.

[0170] Fourteen subjects with post-treatment survivin levels of zero (13 subjects) or 0.1 ng survivin/ml urine (one subject) had negative cystoscopy/cytology immediately following BCG or mitomycin C treatment. Twelve of these fourteen subjects had no recurrence of TCC for one year after completion of treatment. Several studies have suggested that subjects with noninvasive (stage pTa) or lamina propria invasive (stage pTI) tumors and negative cystoscopic findings three months after initial transurethral resection of the bladder tumor may be relieved of the burden of follow-up cystoscopy for twelve months (Holmang et al., J Urol, 2002, 167:1634; Parmar et al., J Urol, 1989, 142: 284; Abel, P. D., Br J Urol, 1993, 72: 135). The absence of urinary survivin provides an additional criteria for a less rigorous cystoscopy regimen, since only one of the twelve subjects who had a Ta or T1 lesion and zero survivin following treatment recurred within one year. Seven of eight subjects who had Ta or T1 lesions and positive post-treatment urinary survivin recurred within one year. In this study, 40% (8/20) of subjects initially diagnosed with Ta or T1 stage TCC recurred, but only one of these subjects was survivin negative following treatment and this recurrence was classified as Grade 1. Coupling initial follow-up cystoscopy with survivin measurements may be useful in determining follow-up intervals for subjects with low stage TCC.

[0171] The absence of survivin immediately following TURBT does not necessarily indicate remission following TURBT. Of the ten subjects who had no survivin (<0.1 ng survivin/ml urine) in their urine following TURBT, eight achieved remission. However, eight of the ten subjects were positive for survivin during treatment.

[0172] In summary, survivin levels are higher in patients who recur compared to patients who achieve remission prior to, during and after intravesical treatment. The presence of urinary survivin measured immediately following intravesical instillation of BCG or mitomycin C predicts TCC recurrence with 100% sensitivity and 78% specificity. After one year, urinary survivin levels measured immediately following treatment still predict TCC recurrence with 83% sensitivity and 92% specificity. This present study indicates that subjects who have urinary survivin after completion of intravesical instillation have a poorer prognosis and may require more intensive follow-up compared to subjects who do not have urinary survivin. Accordingly, the presence of urinary survivin in patients after completion of intravesical instillation can be used as an indicator of the prognosis of the patient.

[0173] It should be understood that the foregoing discussion and examples merely present a detailed description of certain preferred embodiments. It therefore should be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that various modifications and equivalents can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. All journal articles, other references, patents, and patent applications that are identified in this patent application are incorporated by reference in their entirety.

1 6 1 22 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence Forward PCR primer 1 ctgcctggca gccctttctc aa 22 2 22 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence Reverse PCR primer 2 aataaaccct ggaagtggtg ca 22 3 22 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence Forward PCR primer 3 ccgcatctct acattcaaga ac 22 4 19 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence Reverse PCR primer 4 cttggctctt tctctgtcc 19 5 18 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence Forward PCR primer 5 agcgggaaat cgtgcgtg 18 6 19 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence Reverse PCR primer 6 cagggtacat ggtggtgcc 19 

1. A method of predicting recurrence of cancer in a patient comprising assaying a sample of biological fluid from a patient for the presence or absence of survivin, wherein the patient is in remission from cancer treatment and wherein the presence of survivin in the sample indicates that cancer will recur in the patient.
 2. A method of claim 1, wherein the patient completed the cancer treatment less than a month ago.
 3. A method of claim 2, wherein the cancer treatment is selected from the group consisting of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, immunotoxin therapy, and surgery.
 4. A method of claim 3, wherein the cancer treatment is immunotherapy comprising administering BCG intravesically.
 5. A method of claim 4, wherein the cancer treatment is chemotherapy comprising administering mitomycin C intravesically.
 6. A method of claim 1, wherein the biological fluid is urine or blood serum.
 7. A method of claim 1, wherein the cancer is any cancer invading the genitourinary tract.
 8. A method of claim 7, wherein the genitourinary tract cancer is bladder or prostate cancer.
 9. A method of claim 8, wherein the bladder cancer is transitional cell carcinoma.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein survivin is detected using an agent selected from the group consisting of antibodies that bind survivin, survivin binding partners, and nucleic acids that hybridize to a nucleic acid encoding survivin.
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the agent is tagged with a label.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the label is a radioactive label, a fluorescent label, an enzyme, or a chemiluminescent tag.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein survivin is detected by an immunoassay.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the immunoassay is an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay or radioimmunoassay.
 15. The method of claim 13, wherein the immunoassay comprises immunoblotting, immunodiffusion, immunoelectrophoresis, or immunoprecipitation.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein survivin is detected by dot blotting.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein dot blotting comprises using a Bio-Dot SF module.
 18. The method of claim 1, wherein survivin is detected by nucleic acid hybridization.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the nucleic acid hybridization is RT-PCR or Northern blot analysis.
 20. A kit for predicting recurrence of cancer, comprising a container for collecting biological fluid from a patient and an agent that detects the presence of survivin in the biological fluid, wherein the patient is in remission from cancer treatment.
 21. The kit of claim 20, wherein the agent is selected from the group consisting of antibodies that bind survivin, survivin binding partners, and nucleic acids that hybridize to the nucleic acid encoding survivin.
 22. The kit of claim 21, wherein the agent is tagged with a label.
 23. The kit of claim 21, wherein the label is a radioactive label, a fluorescent label, an enzyme, or a chemiluminescent tag.
 24. The kit of claim 20, wherein the agent is packaged in an aqueous medium or in lyophilized form.
 25. The kit of claim 20, further comprising a means to analyze the presence of survivin.
 26. The kit of claim 20, wherein the cancer is bladder or prostate cancer.
 27. The kit of claim 20, wherein the biological fluid is urine or blood serum.
 28. A method of determining stage or grade of a recurrent cancer in a patient comprising quantitating the amount of survivin in a sample of biological fluid from a patient, wherein the patient is in remission from cancer treatment.
 29. A method of claim 28, further comprising comparing the amount of survivin in the sample with the amount of survivin in control samples to determine the grade of the cancer.
 30. A method of claim 28, wherein the amount of survivin in a sample of biological fluid from a patient having cancer of the CIS stage is higher than the amount of survivin in a sample of biological fluid from a patient having cancer of the non-invasive carcinoma stage.
 31. A method of monitoring recurrent cancer in a patient comprising quantitating the amount of survivin in the sample of biological fluid from a patient to determine the grade of the cancer.
 32. A method of claim 31, wherein the amount of survivin in a sample of biological fluid from a patient having cancer of the CIS stage is higher than the amount of survivin in a sample of biological fluid from a patient having cancer of the non-invasive carcinoma stage.
 33. The method of claim 1, wherein the biological fluid is selected from the group consisting of prostatic fluid, seminal fluid, whole blood, serum, urine, breast biopsy fluid, gastrointestinal fluid, and vaginal fluid.
 34. The method of claim 1, wherein the cancer is any cancer that expresses survivin.
 35. The method of claim 1, wherein the cancer is selected from the group consisting of neuroblastoma, breast cancer, lung cancer, bladder cancer, colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, genitourinary tract cancer, prostate cancer, renal cancer, and bladder cancer.
 36. The method of claim 1, wherein the cancer will recur in the patient within one year. 